Which of the following causes settlement of foundations due to water level fluctuation?

Explanation:

1. Settlement of foundations due to water level fluctuation is primarily caused by seasonal swelling and shrinking of expansive soils.
2. These soils, such as clay, change their volume with moisture content.
3. When the water level fluctuates, it can cause the soil to either expand (when the water content increases) or shrink (when the water content decreases), leading to differential settlement in foundations.

Additional InformationTypes of Settlement:

1. Uniform Settlement:

   • Occurs when the foundation settles uniformly across its entire area.

   • Usually occurs when the soil beneath the foundation is homogenous and the loading is evenly distributed.

   • This type of settlement generally does not cause major issues unless it results in excessive deformation.

2. Differential Settlement:

   • Occurs when different parts of the foundation settle by different amounts.

   • Often caused by variations in soil properties, uneven loading, or water fluctuations in the soil.

   • Differential settlement can cause structural damage, such as cracks in walls or misalignment of structural elements.

3. Immediate Settlement:

   • Occurs quickly after the load is applied, usually due to the compression of loose or soft soils.

   • This is typically a small, quick settlement that happens as the soil adjusts to the load.

4. Consolidation Settlement:

   • Takes place over a longer period as the soil particles compress due to the weight of the structure.

   • Common in fine-grained soils, like clay, which experience a gradual reduction in volume when water is expelled under load.