Emile Durkheim's Theory of Suicide: Causes & Types of Suicide | UPSC Notes

Emile Durkheim theory of suicide explains that the main causes of suicide are related to lack of social integration and regulation in society. Emile Durkheim, a pioneering French sociologist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, made lasting contributions to the field of sociology and is considered one of its founding figures. His groundbreaking work, "Suicide: A Study in Sociology" (1897), stands as a seminal text in sociological theory, particularly his exploration of different types of suicide. Durkheim classified suicide into four categories: egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic. 

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Social Causes of Suicide According to Emile Durkheim's Theory

Emile Durkheim studied suicide to show social factors influence individual actions. Emile Durkheim theory of suicide, published in 1897, identifies different types of social causes of suicide which are as follows:

• Durkheim aimed to prove suicide has social causes beyond personal reasons. He studied differences in suicide rates between social groups.
• Durkheim identified two types of suicide with different social causes i.e egoistic and altruistic. Self-centred suicide results from a lack of social integration. People are not attached to society. This causes weak social bonds and bonds which leads to egoistic suicide.
• Altruistic suicide occurs due to too much social obligation on a person. The excessive social control and influence of the group lead to altruistic suicide.
• Durkheim studied suicide rates between religious and non-religious people. Religious people had lower rates. Religion integrates people into society, creating strong social bonds. This reduces egoistic suicide, according to Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide.
• Durkheim also studied married and unmarried people. Married people had lower suicide rates. Marriage integrates people into the social unit of the family, creating bonds. This reduces egoistic suicide.
• Emile Durkheim theory of suicide argued proper social integration and regulation of people through social control and bonds reduce suicide rates. But when social bonds weaken due to a lack of integration, suicide rates rise. This shows the social causes of suicide.
• In summary, Durkheim's study demonstrated that lack of social integration leading to weak social bonds causes egoistic suicide, while excessive social obligation results in altruistic suicide. His findings revealed the necessary social underpinnings of what was seen as an individual act.
• The Emile Durkheim theory of suicide focused on these broad social factors influencing suicide rates between groups, ignoring personal reasons for specific suicides. But it established suicide as a critical subject for sociological research.

Types of Suicide According to Emile Durkheim's Study

Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide proposed four main types of suicide. Durkheim believed that suicide rates are influenced by societal factors, not just individual factors. He identified four types of suicide based on studies of suicide statistics in the late 1800s. These are the following types of suicide according to Emile Dukheim’s study:

• Egoistic Suicide: Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide defined egoistic suicide as resulting from a lack of social integration and attachments. People committing egoistic suicide cannot form enough bonds and relationships with others. They feel isolated and lack a sense of belongingness. Durkheim found that groups with high rates of egoistic suicide are individuals who never married, unmarried or childless widows and widowers.
• Altruistic Suicide: Altruistic suicide happens when people have too much social integration. Individuals are excessively incorporated into their community. They do not have an individual identity of their own. Their life is not their own. Altruistic suicide, according to Durkheim, happens when people sacrifice themselves for their family, religion or country.
• Anomic Suicide: Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide defined anomic suicide as resulting from a lack of societal rules and norms. This happens during great social or economic change when people struggle to adjust. They feel overwhelmed and hopeless. Anomic suicide was common during economic crises, industrialization and sudden change in fortune or status.
• Fatalistic Suicide: Fatalistic suicide happens due to too much social control. Individuals have no freedom or control over their lives. They see no hope for the future. Their lives are completely determined by forces outside of their control. Fatalistic suicide was historically observed in slaves, prisoners and serfs.

These are the four types of suicide that Emile Durkheim identified based on his statistical studies of suicide rates in different populations. Altogether, emile durkheim theory of suicide formed the basis for studying how social factors influence suicide rates rather than only individual factors. Durkheim's work remains influential today and has been expanded on by other sociologists.

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Social Integration And Regulation In Emile Durkheim's Theory Of Suicide

Social integration and social regulation are two important concepts in Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide. Durkheim believed that proper and adequate levels of social integration and regulations are needed to reduce suicide rates in society. These are some of the facts related to role of social integration and regulation in his theory of suicide:

• Social integration refers to how connected people are to each other through shared values, beliefs and community. High social integration means people have strong bonds and relationships.
• Social regulation refers to the rules and norms that shape people's behaviors. Proper social regulation provides stability and guidance.
• According to Durkheim, too little or too much social integration and regulation can lead to different types of suicide.
• Egoistic suicide results from low social integration. People feel isolated and lack connections. 
• Altruistic suicide happens with very high social integration. People lose their individual identities.
• Anomic suicide occurs due to low social regulation. People struggle during times of social change with no clear norms.
• Fatalistic suicide happens with extreme social regulation. People's lives are fully controlled with no hope.
• Durkheim believed balancing social integration and regulation in society reduces most types of suicide.
• Strong connections to others through high social integration give life meaning and a sense of belonging. This discourages egoistic suicide.
• Clear rules and norms from proper social regulation provide stability, especially during change. This prevents anomic suicide.
• However, too much social integration can cause altruistic suicide when people sacrifice their self for the group.
• Too much social regulation can lead to fatalistic suicide when people feel trapped with no control over their lives.

Thus it can be argued that Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide emphasized that both social integration and social regulation impact suicide rates. While moderate levels of both reduce suicide risk, extremes of either can increase specific types of suicide.

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Suicide Rates Among Different Groups in Emile Durkheim's Theory of Suicide

Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide proposed that factors in society influence suicide rates more than individual factors alone. Durkheim identified differences in suicide rates between various religious, marital, occupational and ethnic groups based on his statistical studies. These are the following groups:

• Protestants and Jews: Protestants had higher suicide rates than Catholics and Jews during Durkheim's time. He attributed this to Protestants having lower social integration within their religion compared to Catholics and Jews. Protestants did not have as much structure, ritual and community ties in their religion as Catholics and Jews. This created conditions for more egoistic suicide due to fewer social bonds.
• The Married and Unmarried: Married individuals had lower suicide rates compared to unmarried, widowed and divorced people. Durkheim argued that marriage provided social integration that reduced suicide risk. Spouses create bonds, give life meaning and provide emotional support that married people miss when widowed or divorced. This explains higher rates of egoistic suicide among the unmarried.
• Occupational Groups: Workers in creative occupations, like artists and writers, had higher suicide rates compared to others. Durkheim believed this was due to less structure and regulation in their work. In contrast, members of the military, police and clergy who had uniformity, hierarchy and rules in their occupations had lower suicide rates. They had greater social regulations reducing anomic suicide.
• Men and Women: Men had higher suicide rates than women during Durkheim's time. He argued this was because women had more social constraints and regulations through obligations of wife/mother roles. This reduced conditions for fatalistic suicide in women. However, unmarried and widowed women had higher suicide rates than married women. They lacked the social integration provided by the role of wife, increasing egoistic suicide risk.
• National and Ethnic Groups: Some ethnic groups had higher suicide rates than others. Durkheim attributed this to differences in levels of social integration and regulation between groups. Groups with tighter social bonds, community ties and shared traditions through high integration and regulation saw lower suicide rates.

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Limitations of Durkheim's Theory of Suicide

Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide helped us understand that suicide was a social phenomenon rather than just an individual act. However, the emile durkheim theory of suicide has certain limitations. These are some of the major limitations of Durkheim's theory of suicide:

• Ignores Individual Factors: The emile durkheim theory of suicide focused only on social causes of suicide and ignored individual factors. But individual factors like mental illness, personal crisis, trauma etc., can also lead to suicide. Durkheim overlooked the role of psychological and biological factors in a person's decision to end their life.
• Ignores Cultural Differences: The emile durkheim theory of suicide is based on studies of European societies which have different cultural norms from other parts of the world. But suicide rates and factors influencing suicide vary considerably across cultures. So, Durkheim's conclusions based on European data may not be applicable universally across all cultures.
• Overgeneralization: Durkheim's study used aggregate suicide data to make conclusions about individual behaviour. But aggregate data can sometimes result in overgeneralization. The differences between individuals within each group are ignored. So, Durkheim's conclusions may be too broad and not explain specific cases of suicide.
• Problems with Classification: Durkheim classified suicides into egoistic, altruistic and anomic based on social integration and regulation. But there are problems with this classification. Some suicides cannot be clearly categorized into one type. Many suicides have elements of more than one type. So, Durkheim's rigid classification does not fully capture the complexities of different suicidal behaviours.
• Ignores Social Support: The emile durkheim theory of suicide focuses on concepts like social regulation, norms and integration but ignores the role of social support, which is also crucial in preventing suicide. Social support from family, friends and community can help individuals overcome difficult times and reduce suicidal thoughts. But Durkheim did not consider social support's influence in his theory.
• Focuses only on Society: The emile durkheim theory of suicide puts excessive emphasis on Society and social causes of suicide. It argues that suicidal behaviour is determined completely by social factors. But individuals also have free will and make choices based on their own judgements. Durkheim's theory does not account for individual agency and choice in the decision to take one's life.
• Outdated Data: Durkheim conducted his famous study of suicide in the late 19th century. But many things have changed in societies since then. Durkheim's data and conclusions are based on the social conditions of that time which are very different from modern times. So, his theory may not be relevant in explaining suicidal behaviour in the 21st century.Though Durkheim's theory of suicide was groundbreaking and highlighted the social causes of suicide, it has several limitations. It ignored individual factors, overgeneralized data, had problems with classifications, did not consider social support and focused excessively on Society. It also used outdated data. 

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Important Impact of Durkheim's Theory of Suicide

Emile Durkheim is known as the father of sociology. His famous book 'Suicide' presented a groundbreaking sociological explanation for why people commit suicide. The emile durkheim theory of suicide had a significant impact in several ways:

• Durkheim established that suicide is a social fact. Before him, suicide was seen as an individual issue caused by mental health and personal problems. Durkheim showed that suicide rates in societies follow patterns not explained by individual factors alone. Social causes like integration, rules and guidance influence suicide rates. This established suicide as a subject of sociological study.
• The theory highlighted the role of social integration in preventing suicide. Durkheim found that people more integrated through relationships and groups have lower suicide rates. Strong social connections provide a sense of belonging that stops people from killing themselves. This insight into how integration reduces suicide was new.
• The theory explains that a lack of social rules increases suicide risk. Durkheim showed that in societies with weak guidelines and values, more suicides occur due to confusion. But communities with clear regulations and morals have lower suicide. This idea of 'anomic suicide' was necessary.
• The emile durkheim theory of suicide demonstrated how social changes impact suicide rates. During times of significant social and economic upheaval, old values fade before new one's form. This temporary disorder increases suicide rates. Durkheim's analysis of the link between societal shifts and suicide helped the understanding of suicide.
• The theory improved knowledge of suicidal behaviour. Durkheim's concepts of 'egoistic', 'altruistic' and 'anomic' suicide and his data analysis helped explain different types of suicidal behaviours and their causes.
• The theory stimulated further research. Durkheim's work prompted scholars to study how other social factors like social support, community ties and family structure influence suicide rates. His theory paved the way for more comprehensive sociological explanations of suicide.
• Durkheim established suicide as a topic of sociology. Before him, suicide was mainly studied by psychologists, biologists and theologians. He showed sociological concepts and methods could provide insights into suicide. He pioneered the sociological perspective of suicide, which continues today.

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Conclusion

Durkheim's theory of suicide marked a significant moment. By establishing suicide as a social issue, Durkheim shifted the study of suicide from a psychological problem to a sociological one. His ideas and insights continue to impact how we understand and study suicide today. Though limited, Durkheim's work forms the foundation of modern sociological views on suicide.

Key Takeaways for UPSC Aspirants Gender Sensitization: It is the process of creating awareness and understanding about gender differences and promoting gender equality. Sociology: It is the scientific study of interaction between society and human behavior. Psychology: This is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Cognitive Psychology: This is a branch of psychology in which thinking, memory, perception, language, and problem-solving processes are studied. Developmental Psychology: This is a branch of psychology which examines the circumstances and factors due to which an individual grows and changes throughout their lifespan, from infancy to old age.

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